Home video game industry Essay Example for Free

Home video game industry Essay In 1972 founders Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney scrounged $50,000 from family, friends and local banks, formed their own company. They hired Alan Alcorn who created Pong and put a sample unit in Andy Capps Tavern in suburban Sunnyvale to see if anyone would play it. Twenty-four hours later, the owner called Bushnell in a rage and demanded that he get over to the bar with his tool kit as soon as possiblethe prototype game had broken down because it was being flooded with money. Pong was more than a game of Ping-Pong on a video screen. This was the beginning of Atari, while Atari made millions off the game consoles, they sold the software to many other major companies, and in turn they came out with their own version of pong. Although Atari saw profits from software royalties they kicked themselves out of the video game markets as other companies were using the pong model to penetrate the market. At the time of the U. S. crash, there were numerous consoles on the market, including the Atari 2600, Atari 5200, Bally Astrocade, ColecoVision, Emerson Arcadia 2001 Magnavox Odyssey 2,and the Vectrex. Home computers had more memory and faster processors than a console, they permitted more sophisticated games. They could also be used for tasks such as word processing and home accounting. Games were easier to duplicate, since they could be packaged as floppy disks or cassette tapes instead of ROM modules. This opened the field to third-party software developers. In 1986, Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi noted that Atari collapsed because they gave too much freedom to third-party developers and the market was swamped with rubbish games. In response, Nintendo limited the number of titles that third-party developers could release for their system each year, and promoted its Seal of Quality, which it allowed to be used on games and peripherals by publishers that met Nintendos quality standards]. The North American video game crash had two long-lasting results. The first result was that dominance in the home console market shifted from the United States to Japan. When the video game market recovered in the late 1980s, Nintendos NES was by far the dominant console, leaving only a fraction of the market to a resurgent Atari battling Segas Master System for the number-two spot soon after. By 1989, home video game sales in the United States had reached $5 billion, surpassing the 1982 peak of $3 billion during the previous generation. A large majority of the market was controlled by Nintendo, whose NES ultimately sold more than 35 million units in the United States, exceeding the sales of other consoles and personal computers by a considerable margin With the introduction of the Sega Genesis in America, Sega of America launched an anti-Nintendo campaign to carry the momentum to the new generation of games, with its slogan Genesis does what Nintendont. This was initially implemented by Sega of America President Michael Katz. When Nintendo launched its Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1991, Sega changed its slogan to Welcome to the next level. Sega re-branded itself with a new game and mascot, Sonic the Hedgehog. This shift led to a wider success for the Genesis and would eventually propel Sega to 65% of the market in North America for a brief time. On May 11, 1995, Sega released the Sega Saturn in the American market. Segas first CD console that was not an add on, utilized two 32-bit processors and preceded both the Sony PlayStation and the Nintendo 64 The lack of a strong Sonic and its high price in comparison to the PlayStation were among the reasons for the failure of the console. The 3DO Company lacked the resources to manufacture consoles themselves, and instead licensed the hardware to other companies for manufacturing. Trip Hawkins recounted that they approached every electronics manufacturer, but that their chief targets were Sony and Panasonic, the two largest consumer electronics companies in the world. Founder trip Hawkins thought by selling his software to the main markets he could penetrate the market with a high price brining in a high profit margin. The launch price of the Play Station in the American market was US$299, undercutting their competitors, but knew that they would sell more consoles and make profit in the long-term. Xbox entered the console market because of a direct threat from Sony. They thought that consoles would take over web-browsing and directly hurt their main network in home computer systems. With annual revenues of close to 20 billion dollars Microsoft decided to invest 4 billion to develop the Xbox. With already a huge brand name and high product value in the computer market, Xbox was a massive success in the gaming network knowing they had the capability to keep up with the technical aspects of the other competitors. While Nintendo’s Game Cube was a bust, Nintendo knew they needed to use knew software in order to compete with the dominating Xbox and Play Stations new motion sensitive technology was cheap to integrate in software and Nintendo took advantage of that market. The Nintendo Wii launched in 2007, used old game that branded the Nintendo name including The Mario Brothers, which appealed to both old and new generations. Technology is driving the new markets, but Nintendo, Sony and Microsoft control the gaming market of today because of their ability to create affordable gaming while still being innovating.

Capital Punishment :: essays research papers

Capital Punishment is the lawful infliction of the death penalty. The three most common death penalties are the gas chamber, lethal injection, and the electric chair. These methods are used to be a deterrent against crimes such as murder. The point given to these people is that they are less likely to commit a crime knowing they’ll receive the ultimate punishment to kill. "No other punishment is to deter man so effectively from committing a crime as the punishment of death". Now many people may agree that this statement is correct, but Criminologists have built a strong case that the threat of death failed to deter murder, anymore effectively than prison. Therefore, to inflict harm to one, is just simply useless. Capital Punishment is meant to deter crimes but at what cost? Capital trials are longer and more expensive at every step than other murder trials. Pre-trial motions, expert witness investigations, jury selection, and the necessity for two trials--one on guilt and one on sentencing--make capital cases extremely costly, even before the appeals process begins. Guilty pleas are almost unheard of when the punishment is death. In addition, many of these trials result in a life sentence rather than the death penalty, so the state pays the cost of life imprisonment on top of the expensive trial. On top of that some states are spending large amounts of money, but murder rates are not going down. For example, the most comprehensive study in the country found that the death penalty costs North Carolina $2.16 million per execution more then life imprisonment. Texas, with over 300 people on death row, is spending an estimated $2.3 million per case, but its murder rate remains one of the highest i n the country. A death penalty case costs an average of $2.3 million, is about three times the cost of imprisoning someone in a single cell at the highest security level for 40 years. The exorbitant costs of capital punishment are actually making America less safe because badly needed financial and legal resources are being diverted from effective crime fighting strategies. Across the country, police are being laid off, prisoners are being released early, the courts are clogged, and crime continues to rise. In Texas, prisoners are serving only 20% of their time and rearrests are common. Now if money was putting men in prison instead of killing them†¦. Also, Georgia is laying off 900 correctional personnel and New Jersey has had to dismiss 500 police officers.

Urban deprivation is one of the characteristics of large cities in all parts of the world

The inner city areas of many Global cities have an image of decay with poverty, pollution, crime, overcrowding, poor housing conditions and unemployment. Such problems are more prevalent in inner-city areas than in other areas of the city. Deprivation has been caused by old industries closing down and increasing the unemployment levels which are not tackled due to the old workers not being skilled enough to work in these new factories or line of jobs. This happens more in MEDC's compared to LEDC's where overpopulation and urbanization have cause the problems in the inner city. Counterurbanization has been another problem within MEDC's as it has left houses derelict and the people would rather commute than live in the inner city. This has then led to out of town shopping centers being set up. In MEDC's the inner city initiatives for reversing the decline of the inner city started back in 1945 with comprehensive redevelopment. This program involved large-scale clearance of old terraces in order to provide space for new housing and inner city environmental features. Over twenty years 1. 5 million properties wee knocked down in the inner city. Elswick and Kenton in Newcastle were two areas embarked for comprehensive redevelopment. Existing residents were moved either into new towns of Cramlington or to extensive council houses estates built in areas such as, Byker. Many local authorities followed identical planning and soon the landscape of the inner city was transformed with huge concrete and glass tower blocks separated by flat expanses of grass. At the time these high-rise flats were a great success architecturally however the policy failed due to redevelopment underachieving demolition. This gave a housing shortage and vast spaces of derelict land. This policy that lasted till 1967 also failed to tackle the social and economic problems. 1968 saw another scheme come into action; the Urban Aid programme gave grants to local authorities to expand services in deprived areas and to establish community development projects using self help. This scheme was a great deal more localized and it was unfortunate that the economic downturn limited the funds and therefore by 1977 the scheme had finished. The next year the new towns policy was abandoned in an effort to stop decentralization of people and businesses. For the first time inner cities were officially declared problem areas. In 1988 Margaret Thatcher introduced the â€Å"Action for cities† policy. From 1991 onwards-Local authorities were able to bid for funds for specific urban projects. An example is Sunderland; the money was used to redesign parts of the city center with a new shopping precinct. And bus station. A single government department, the end of the 1990's had created the Urban Regeneration Agency. In Greater Manchester 4. 5 hectares of the city were destroyed with 30,000 homes left damaged form the bombing of World War II. By the end of the war 70,000 homes were deemed unfit for living mostly in the high density Victorian inner center. The plan for Manchester was launched in 1945 with the aim of clearing all Victorian housing. Following the repair of the war the Manchester Slum Clearance Programme restarted in 1954. Over five years 7500 properties were demolished mostly in the Miles Platting area. In 1961 the policy of comprehensive development took place with the clearance programme expanding in four main areas: Hulme, Beswick, Longsight and Harpurhey. Over 55,00 new houses, a mixture of low and high rise were built to replaced the cleared terraces reducing the housing density and population by up to 50% in some areas. The Hulme area was a typical Victorian area of Manchester and was tightly packed with terraces. Conditions were overcrowded and polluted with few housing having toilets. After the demolition of the terraces, shopping facilities were introduced in three areas. By 1972 the redevelopment of Hulme was completed with 5,000 new houses being built. Problems did arise with new properties leaking and then the heating bills were too high for the residents and many found the accommodation inappropriate. This area fell into a spiral of decline with growing unemployment, drugs and violence along with eh deteriorating environment. The Hulme city challenge was launched in 1992. This plan involved building of 3000 new homes, shops, roads, offices and community facilities to replace existing properties in a 60-hectare area. The funds of i200 million came from the government, local authority and private finance. Manchester faced other problems form the closure of the nineteenth century industries that left 24,000 jobs unavailable between 1974 and 1984. Plans included 2000 new houses and 375,000 square meters of industrial and commercial floor space to provide 10,000 jobs. In 1988 central Manchester was given n UDC to regenerate 200 hectares of land and buildings in the southern part of the city center. This area included six conservation areas, over ninety listed buildings, three universities, the Granada Studios Tour and the Museum of Science and Industry. However these were the areas of contaminated land, derelict warehouses, mills and canals. The IDC ended in 1996 and in the eight years of operation invested i420 million. Urban deprivation in the LEDC's have been tackled in many ways however there have been schemes that have proven to be a lot more successful than the others. In Chennai there has been a rapid increase in population due to the rural to urban migration and the high birth rates. About one third of the population lives in the slums, mostly shantytowns. The planning solutions began with the building of four to six storey blocks however these largely failed due to high maintenance and lack of uptake as the tenants would be unable to afford the rent. If the rent were reduced the scheme would lose money. After this initial failure The Board took up a new idea of upgrading the slums. The aims set were providing one bath and one toilet per ten families; one public fountain per twenty families; one street light per forty meters of road and one pre school per two hundred families. Other initiatives required self-help financing after an initial investment had been made either by the World Bank or welfare organizations. These schemes encouraged greater community involvement. Some of the start up loans were gave to families to build their own homes. Site and service schemes were implemented with finance provided for the acquisition of land; purchase of building materials, road building and the provision of basic services such as, water and sewage. New owners were then responsible for building the property on their allocated land. The upgrading after that often led to the sale of homes to higher income groups. The generated some money for the poor families and allowed the Board to re-invest in new schemes. An area in the southern outskirts of Chennai was the location for a site and services scheme known as Velacheri. It provided fourteen hectares of land to house 2,640 families many of whom were being forced out of Chennai. Waiting for the new residents building their homes would have caused a delayed the rail building so contractors were used to begin the building of properties. Along with the roads, water supply, streetlights and many other services. These services did face problems with many being left unfinished and extra floors being added without regulation. Some families sold their home for profit and the poorest were unable to afford these houses. These are some example of the initiatives being taken in order to solve the problem of urban deprivation. However there have been many other schemes and one of the most successful was that of the Favelas in Brazil redevelopment that won several prizes such as, the famous Habitat Award from the United Nations. These have been more successful as it didn't break up the families and kept the community spirit and the families could continue to access their place of employment. The similarities between the initiatives of the MEDC and LEDC worlds that have been undertaken for there reduction of urban deprivation are not all that similar. This is due to the fact that the MEDC's have more finance so there are able to use other schemes to tackle their problems. Also the fact that the problems they face are of a different cause. In the LEDC's it tends to be shanty towns are therefore have to look to house these people unlike the MEDC it not so overcrowding but unemployment due to the decline of the Industrial Revolution and recently Counterurbanization has left old Victorian buildings derelict and an eye-saw.

Thesis Proposal on Coping Strategies For Mothers Who Have Children Diagnozed With ADHD

Abstract Affecting about 3-10% of all children, ADHD is among the most frequently occurring Mental Health Childhood Disorders. The methodology utilized in the study is systematic literature review. Research articles were searched from two online data bases that is, Medline and Ovid. The objectives of the review center around three aspects related to the mothers of children who have been diagnosed with ADHD. The review focuses on one describing the variety of stresses experienced by mothers after having their children diagnosed with ADHD. More importantly, it illuminates the policies and procedures available to support these mothers specifically in regard to social and financial support. Finally, it details and discusses evidence based coping strategies that have been found to be effective amongst these mothers. Abbreviations: PEP (Prevention Program for Externalizing Problem Behavior); ADHD (Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder); AAP (American Academy of Pediatrics); COPE (Coping Orientation to Problem Experienced); PSI (Parenting Stress Index). Background ADHD is a childhood disorder which has an early onset and which is among the common mental health disorders affecting children with a prevalence rate of 3-10% (Hanisch et al, 2010). It is characterized by hyperactivity, impulsivity and symptoms of inattention that are not developmentally appropriate (Chang, 2009). ADHD produces significant impairments in the affected children’s social interactions, school performance, and performance of other daily activities as well as in their self-esteem (Durukan et al., 2008). The behavioral characteristics of affected children have been shown to affect mothers in an overt way and have especially been attributed with increasing distress in mothers (Hautmann et al., 2009). A variety of studies, both cross-sectional and long-term have explored the issue of parental stress with others have specifically focused on maternal stress following the diagnosis of their children with ADHD. Various psychological tools for evaluation of stress have been utilized in these studies. They include the Coping Orientation to Problem Experienced (COPE) scale developed by Weintraub, Carver and Scheier, parenting stress index (PSI) by Abidin and Santos (2003) and EMBU-P by Cannavaro and Pereira (2007) amongst others. Diagnosis of ADHD is based on the DSM-IV criteria, the Australian Disruptive Behaviors Scale amongst others (Durukan et al., 2008). The fact that mothers are the primary care takers of affected children in majority of the cases has potentiated the need to explore the coping strategies utilized by these mothers (Segal, 2000). Policies and procedures aimed at providing support to affected children and their mothers also need to be evaluated (Zima et al., 2010). Objectives This review aims at identifying the variety of stresses that mothers go through when their child is diagnosed with ADHD. Further, it aims at evaluating the policies and procedures available to help mothers cope with having a child diagnosed with ADHD. The final aim is to identify evidence based strategies on how mothers can cope with having children who have been diagnosed as having ADHD. Methodology The study was a systematic literature review that encompassed information from a number of studies conducted in different countries. Two electronic data bases were selected for the literature review, that is, Medline and Ovid. The two databases were searched in the month of April 2011. Search terms were selected based on the research topic and refined on the basis of findings of a pilot test. They included ADHD, PEP, mothers, coping strategies, policy and procedures. Abstracts to all articles were read to establish the relevance of their content to the topic under study. Articles that were found to be irrelevant to the topic were also not selected for inclusion into the review. Studies on non-target populations were also excluded from the review. 39 full articles were selected and downloaded of which 15 were reviewed; 3 from Ovid and 12 from Medline. Content from the 15 articles were abstracted and organized into categories. They were further analyzed via qualitative synthesis. A methodological quality screen was not applied. Conversely, the results are accepted as reported by the authors. Maternal stress following the diagnosis of a child with ADHD A study by Lin et al. (2002) established that the maternal stress for a random sample of these mothers was 62.00 on the PSI. Notably, the behavioral characteristics of children suffering from ADHD were found to be highly correlated with maternal stress (p.001). Findings to studies by Pimentel et al. (2010) and Deault (2010) also concur that mothers often report that they are stressed because they simply do not know how to deal with the impulsive and aggressive behavior exhibited by their children. Behavioral characteristics of these children more often than not elicit feelings of parental inadequacy which is a source of stress to the mother (Deault, 2010). Studies have also established that the subtype of ADHD which a child is suffering from is also strongly correlated to maternal stress. One such study by Yang et al (2007, pp.369-375) concluded that mothers of children with the combined sub-type of ADHD reported higher parenting stress   and had higher scores on the parenting stress index (PSI) than those with children with the other sub-types of ADHD. In essence therefore, not only has the mother to deal with the stress related to the behaviors exhibited by her child but she also has to cope with the stress related to the subtype and hence the severity of her child’s condition. Amongst the family characteristics highly correlated with the development of ADHD is parental stress and maternal psychopathology. Parental stress is further attributed to disruptions in child-parent relations and reduced parenting self-efficacy (Johnston et al., 2001, pp.183-207; Deault (2010, p.172). The mother in such cases has to contend with stress related to self guilt that she could have possibly contributed in the development of the condition in her child (Johnston et al., 2001). Further, she has to handle the stress related to friends and relatives who may blame her for her child’s condition (Deault, 2010). Findings by the Lin et al. (2002) study retaliate that the parent’s self-awareness of their own psychological and emotional problems exacerbate the mother’s stress levels following the diagnosis of a child with ADHD. Findings of a study by Chang (2009) posit that the traditional concept of motherhood that tends to label these mothers as failures is also a major stressor for mothers whose children have been diagnosed with ADHD. Regression analysis of data from the study indicated that two domains of parental stress that is parental distress and dysfunctional parent-child relations were best explained by the concept of motherhood held as opposed to a child’s behavioral characteristics (to the power of R2=.172 and .281). Another stressor cited by Norvitilitis et al. (2002) for these mothers is the stigma they perceive as being associated with ADHD otherwise known as courtesy stigma. These mothers perceive stigma and hence tend to isolate themselves despite findings by the Norvitilitis et al. (2002) study that indicated that contrary to expectations, mothers whose children did not have ADHD did not harbor any harsh views about ADHD and felt no need to isolate the mothers whose children had been diagnosed with the condition. The financial implication of the diagnosis of a child with ADHD is another variable that significantly contributes to maternal stress (Baker, 2004; Segal, 2000).ADHD requires long-term comprehensive management (Durukan et al., 2008) which may prove costly to some mothers. Policies and procedures on ADHD In the US, Medicaid covers more than a third of the total national costs for mental health disorders in children. Further, federal policies require Medicaid to provide Specialty Mental Health Services with reimbursements that deal with conditions like ADHD. Moreover, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act enacted in 2010 expanded the coverage of Medicaid to children who were previously uninsured (Zima et al, 2010). Insurance cover therefore potentially limits the financial repercussions of the condition on the children’s parents. Guidelines by the AAP on the diagnosis and subsequent management of children suffering from ADHD engender a collaborative approach that integrates inputs from the child’s parents, teachers, school counselors and nurses and community mental health practitioners. The community process resulting from the collaborative approach provides support to the mothers by shouldering some of the responsibilities in the management of the child with ADHD (Foy et al., 2005). National guidelines on ADHD have prioritized the aspect of shared decision making in the diagnosis and management of ADHD which besides incorporating the parents’ perspectives in the process fosters support to parents by medical professions in the parents’ social networks (Fiks et al., 2011). Effective coping strategies for mothers Only a limited number of studies have focused on the aspect of effective coping strategies for mothers having children who have been diagnosed with ADHD. Majority of studies tend to accentuate more on the identification of coping strategies that have been found to be ineffective like substance abuse. Use of denial as coping strategy for dealing with stress in adults was described by Levine et al. (1987) who pointed out that its use was not only necessary but had been proven effective in the early stages following a diagnosis. Moreover, they proposed that it has the added benefit of freeing resources for the mother to cope with the diagnosis (as cited in Durukan et al. 2008, p.221). Positive reframing on the other hand was found to be an effective coping strategy by Pololski et al (2001) for parents whose children have been diagnosed with ADHD. Positive reframing entails the redefinition of stressful experiences in a more positive and realistic manner. Utilization of this strategy had a significant impact on two variables of the study; the disruptive behaviors of the child and parenting stress both of which decreased (Pololski et al., 2001). A study by Segal (2000, p.304) aimed at describing the various time coping strategies adopted by mothers whose children had been diagnosed with ADHD concluded that mothers tend to use three main types of adoptive strategies to manage their time, that is, unfolding occupations which can either be temporary or inclusive and enfolding occupations. Enfolding occupations simply imply that the mother is engaged in more than one occupation at any time. Inclusion unfolding occupations entail delegating tasks previously performed by the mother to another person. In temporal unfolding, the mother reorganizes the sequence by which she used to perform her tasks such that certain activities end up being performed at another time (Segal, 2000, p.305). Equipping the mothers with the appropriate knowledge and skills is one of the coping strategies that have been explored in numerous studies. PEP, a program for training parents whose children have externalizing behavior problems was found to be effective in improving the child’s disruptive behavioral problems as well as parental practices (Hanisch et al, 2010; Hautmann et al., 2009). The primary aim of PEP is to increase parental competency in handling a child’s disruptive behaviors (Hautmann et al., 2009). The efficacy of PEP has been evaluated under two contexts; a trial study by Hanisch et al., (2010) and 1-year follow up study of its application under real life situations by Hautmann et al. (2009). Conclusion Innumerable studies have identified the variety of stress that a mother whose child is diagnosed with ADHD experiences. Stress in these mothers is related to the disruptive behaviors exhibited by their children, financial implications of the condition, the traditional motherhood concept as well as the sense of guilt that comes with the realization that she as the mother could have possibly contributed to the development of the condition in the child. Stress in these mothers is also related to other stressors that existed prior to the diagnosis, the stigma associated with the condition as well as the subtype of ADHD. Medicaid insurance covers most of the costs of treatment for children with ADHD in the U.S. Enactment of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act will also ensure that children who were previously not covered by Medicaid are covered which potentially decreases the financial costs of the condition to the mothers. Other national policies on ADHD facilitate the processes of shared decision making and community approach to the diagnosis and management of ADHD all which foster social support to the mothers. Positive reframing, denial, time coping strategies via participating in enfolding and unfolding occupations and training to acquire the skills, knowledge necessary to effectively cope with having a child diagnosed with ADHD are some of the evidence based coping strategies utilized by these mothers. References Baker, D.B. (2004). Parenting stress and ADHD: A comparison of mothers and fathers. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 25(4), 46-50. Chang, Y. (2009). How motherhood perception of the mothers who have ADHD children affects their parenting stress. Journal of Family Psychology, 21(4), 584-594. Deault,L.C. (2010). A systematic review of parenting in relation to the development of comorbidities and functional impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 41(2), 168-192. Durukan, I., Erdem, M., Tufan, A.E., Congologlu, A., Yorbik, O. Turkbay, T. (2008). Depression and anxiety levels and coping strategies used by mothers of children with ADHD: a preliminary study. Anatolian Journal of Psychiatry, 9, 217-223. Fiks, A.G., Hughes, C.C., Gafen, A., Guevara, J.P., Barg, F.K. (2011). Contrasting parents and pediatricians perspectives on shared decision-making in ADHD. Pediatrics, 127(1), 188-196. Foy, J.M. Earls, M.F. (2005). A process for developing community consensus regarding the diagnosis and management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics, 115(1), 97-104. Hanisch, C., Freund-Braier, I., Hautmann, C., Jà ¤ne, N., Plà ¼ck, J., Brix, G., Eichelberger, I. Dà ¶pfner, M. (2010). Detecting effects of the indicated prevention Programme for Externalizing Problem behaviour (PEP) on child symptoms, parenting, and parental quality of life in a randomized controlled trial. Behavior and Cognitive   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Psychotherapy, 38(1), 95-112. Hautmann, C., Hoijtink, H., Eichelberger, I., Hanisch, C., Plà ¼ck, J., Walter, D.    Dà ¶pfner, M. (2009). One-year follow-up of a parent management training for children with externalizing behaviour problems in the real world. Behavioral and Cognitive psychotherapy, 37 (4), 379-396. Johnston, C. Mash, E.J. (2001). Families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: review and recommendations for future research. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4(3), 183-207. Lin, Y.F. Chung, H.H. (2002). Parenting stress and parents willingness to accept   treatment in relation to behavioral problems of children with attention-deficit    hyperactive disorder. The Journal of Nursing Research, 10(1), 43-56. Norvitillis, J.M., Scime, M. Lee, J.S. (2002). Courtesy stigma in mothers of children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Attention Disorders, 6(2), 61-88. Pololski, C.L., Nigg, J.T. (2001). Parent stress and coping in relation to child ADHD severity of   associated child disruptive behavior problems. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 503-513. Segal, R. (2000). Adaptive strategies of mothers with children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: enfolding and unfolding occupations. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 54(3), 300-306. Yang, P., Jong, Y.J., Hsu, H.Y. Tsai, J.H. (2007). Psychiatric features and parenting stress profiles of subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: results from a clinically referred Taiwanese sample.   Journal of Development and Behavioral Pediatrics, 28(5), 369-375. Zima, B.T., Bussing, R., Tang, L., Zhang, L., Ettner, S., Belin, T.R. Wells, K.B. (2010). Quality of care for childhood Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in a managed care Medicaid program. Journal of the American Academy of Child and   Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(12), 1225-1237.